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In formal syntax, ''tough'' movement refers to sentences in which the syntactic subject of the main verb is logically the object of an embedded non-finite verb. The following sentences illustrate ''tough'' movement. :(1) This problem is tough to solve. :(2) Chris is easy to please. The phenomenon was so named by Rosenbaum (1967) because prototypical example sentences like (1) involve the word ''tough.'' In these sentences, ''this problem'' is logically the object of ''solve'', and ''Chris'' is logically the object of ''please''. The sentences can therefore be paraphrased as: :(1a) It is tough to solve this problem :(2a) It is easy to please Chris. or :(1b) To solve this problem is tough. :(2b) To please Chris is easy. Adjectives that allow this construction include ''amusing'', ''annoying'', ''awkward'', ''bad'', ''beautiful'', ''beneficial'', ''boring'', ''comfortable'', ''confusing'', ''convenient'', ''cumbersome'', ''dangerous'', ''delightful'', ''depressing'', ''desirable'', ''difficult'', ''dull'', ''easy'', ''educational'', ''embarrassing'', ''essential'', ''excellent'', ''exhausting'', ''expensive'', ''fashionable'', ''fine'', ''fun'', ''good'', ''great'', ''hard'', ''horrible'', ''ideal'', ''illegal'', ''important'', ''impossible'', ''impressive'', ''instructive'', ''interesting'', ''irritating'', ''loathsome'', ''necessary'', ''nice'', ''odd'', ''painful'', ''pleasant'', ''pleasurable'', ''rare'', ''risky'', ''safe'', ''simple'', ''strange'', ''tedious'', ''terrible'', ''tiresome'', ''tough'', ''tricky'', ''unpleasant'', ''useful'', and ''weird''. This construction is also possible with noun phrases like ''a pleasure'', ''a breeze'', or ''a cinch'': :Nureyev is a delight to watch. :It is a delight to watch Nureyev. :To watch Nureyev is a delight. and with the verb ''take'': : This document will take a long time to process. : It will take a long time to process this document. : To process this document will take a long time. Similar constructions are possible in Dutch, but with a much more limited range of predicates (van der Auweraa and Noëla 2011): : : In early transformational grammar (such as Rosenbaum 1967) , this construction was analyzed as an instance of object-to-subject raising, in which the object is base-generated in the normal position after the embedded verb in the deep structure of sentences like (1-2), just as in (1a-2a), but that it is then moved to the front in the surface structure: : Chris''i'' is easy (please ''ti'' ). In classical government and binding theory it is no longer assumed that the object is moved directly to the subject position. Rather, Chomsky (1977) proposed that the NP "Chris" is base-generated in the main clause, and a null operator raises within in the embedded clause: : Chris''i'' is easy (PRO''j'' to please ''ti'' ) (see the tree diagram of the embedded clause below) : The ''tough'' movement construction is similar to but distinct from ''pretty'' constructions and adjectives modified by ''too'' or ''enough'': : These pictures are pretty to look at. : Lee's mattress is too lumpy to sleep on. For one, these latter constructions do not allow an alternate form with an unraised object: : *It is pretty to look at these pictures. : *It is too lumpy to sleep on Lee's mattress. or fronted infinitive: : *To look at these pictures is pretty. : *To sleep on Lee's mattress is too lumpy. == References == *van der Auwera, J. & D. Noëla. (2001). Raising: Dutch between English and German. ''Journal of Germanic Linguistics'' 23:1-36. *Chomsky, N. (1973). Conditions on transformations. In S. Anderson & P. Kiparsky (eds.), ''A Festschrift for Morris Halle.'' New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. *Chomsky, N. (1977). On ''Wh''-Movement. In Peter Culicover, Thomas Wasow, and Adrian Akmajian, eds., Formal Syntax. New York: Academic Press, 71-132. *Chomsky, N. (1981). ''Lectures on government and binding''. Dordrecht: Foris. *Flickinger, D. & J. Nerbonne. (1992). Inheritance and complementation: A case study of ''easy'' adjectives and related nouns. ''Computational Linguistics'' 18(3):269-309. *Hicks, G. (2009). ''Tough''-constructions and their derivation. ''Linguistic Inquiry'' 40(4):535-566. *Lasnik, H. & R. Fiengo (1974). Complement object deletion. ''Linguistic Inquiry'' 5:535-571. *Mair, C. (1987). Tough-movement in present-day British English: A corpus-based study. ''Studia Linguistica'' 41(1):59-71. *Rezac, M. (2006). On tough movement. In C. Boeckx (ed.), ''Minimalist essays'' (pp. 288-325). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. *Rosenbaum, P. (1967). ''The grammar of English predicate complement constructions.'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Tough movement」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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